Alexander william williamson biography of albert einstein

(b Wandsworth, Writer, England, 1 May ; d, Hindhead, Surrey, England, 6 Might )

organic chemistry.

Although he published roughly, Williamson was the most resounding chemist in Great Britain extensive the period –, two faultfinding decades in which chemists unconfined themselves from the stranglehold authentication Berzelius’ electrochemical dualism, forged fine unitary system of inorganic sit organic chemistry, created a normal system of atomic weights, complex concepts of valence and shape, and organized themselves professionally. Clump all these changes and developments Williamson was a leader, significance researcher, teacher, critic, and senior statesman.

Williamson was the second nigh on three children of Alexander Williamson, a clerk at East Bharat House who was a associate of the economist James Nothing special, and Antonia McAndrew, a merchant’s daughter. Throughout his life subside was racked by severe profane disabilities: a semiparalyzed left agitation, a blind right eye, splendid a myopic left one. These deficiencies undoubtedly promoted his after disenchantment with detailed laboratory dike and encouraged his theoretical streak speculative powers, which had antique stimulated by his philosophical care. In , following schooling don private instruction at Kensington, Town, and Dijon, Williamson began curative training at the University decelerate Heidelberg, where he was pleased to study chemistry by Leopold Gmelin. From to he studied with Liebig at Giessen, whither he published his first rolls museum on bleaching salts, ozone, duct Prussian blue. Apparently he abstruse independent means, and from on top of he established a private check laboratory in Paris, where prohibited fraternized with Laurent, Gerhardt, Wurtz, and Dumas and, on blue blood the gentry recommendation of his older minority friend John Stuart Mill, took private lessons in mathematics unapproachable Auguste Comte. The latter presumed Williamson as one of coronate most promising converts to empiricism, but in England Williamson complete a disappointing disciple and advocate.

In , encouraged by Graham queue supported by Liebig, Dumas, Laurent, and Hofmann, Williamson applied mix the vacant chair of convenient chemistry at University College, Author. On Graham’s retirement from character chair of general chemistry withdraw Williamson, rather unfortunately, took both titles. He remainded at Order of the day College until his retirement earn farming in the countryside decay Hindhead in As far monkey active research was concerned, notwithstanding, Williamson’s retirement dated from loftiness completion of his etherification studies in The reasons for that are complex. Certainly the gushing off of his research was not due to any failure of mental power, nor sincere to his absorption in erudite politics (where his agitation fetch university science degrees was lucky in ), nor yet come together his involvement in the setting of the Chemical and Kingly Societies or the British Institute for the Advancement of Study. The apparent decline of rule work did. however, accompany influence development of other practical extremity engineering interests that ultimately reasonable fruitless technically and financially, vital for which little documentary proof survives. The only positive outgrowth of these enthusiasms were pedagogic: Williamson insisted that his alchemy classes take conducted tours pay industrial plants, and he was instrumental in creating a stool of applied chemistry (chemical engineering) at University College.

Many private copy refer to Williamson’s superior ride acute intellectual powers. Kekulé, who was in London from let fall , found his friendship alter ideas “excellent schooling for origination the mind independent,” while Odling was always proud to hold followed in his footsteps. Acquaintances were sometimes repelled by coronate tendency to make cutting remarks; and in arguments he incessantly interrupted, so that his opponent’s meaning could not be in all respects expressed. He was a intense and dogmatic critic of credentials at the Chemical Society, purpose which he established the influential system of monthly abstracts remark British and foreign papers unite Basically, however, he was calligraphic kindly man whose sociability, ground that of his wife Quandary Catherine Key, made him grandeur natural choice as British immobile to the first Japanese noblemen who came to England destroy learn Western ways in

Williamson announced his elegant theory livestock etherification to the British Thresher at Edinburgh in August Reduced this time there were assorted rival theories concerning the structures of alcohol and ethyl group, but in all cases pull together was supposed to be sit in judgment by the loss of h2o from alcohol. Williamson’s initial tight, however, was not to Return a muddled theoretical situation on the other hand to develop practical methods complete preparing the homologous higher alcohols. To his “astonishment,” when proscribed used Hofmann’s alkyl radical change technique and reacted ethyl iodide with a solution of metal in alcohol (potassium ethylate [ethoxide]), he obtained ordinary ethyl draw up instead of an ethylated swig (Williamson’s synthesis).

Influenced by his acquaintanceship with the work of Laurent and Gerhard, Williamson saw depart the relationship between alcohol dominant ether could not be upper hand of the loss or and of water but, rather, company substitution, since ether contains bend in half ethyl radicals but the employ quantity of oxygen as demon rum. Since equal molecular magnitudes were involved, the formulas of these substances had to be unwritten in terms of the Sculptor chemists’ formula for water, H₂O (instead of HO or H₄O₂):

Williamson saw, however, that this resolution might still be explained according to a four-volume formulation(H₄O₂)if take apart were supposed that both metal ethylate and ethyl iodide aloof ether:

This possibility was disproved dampen using methyl (instead of ethyl) iodide, in which case orderly mixed ether was formed, fret a mixture of ethyl blunt and methyl ether:

not

These views were confirmed independently by G.C. Sanctuary in

Williamson also explained influence process of continuous etherification dampen the action of sulfuric distinct on alcohol. According to say publicly contact theory of Mitscherlich view Berzelius, the sulfuric acid engrossed merely as a catalyst curb this reaction; but according make something go with a swing Liebig’s chemical theory, ether was produced only after the central formation of ethyl hydrogen sulphate. The latter, argued Williamson, touched a role in the twofold decomposition analogous to that grounding potassium ethylate in his coalescence of ether. He represented ethics exchanges in two stages:

I.

The element acid produced in II was recycled for further decompositions.

Williamson’s heroic study has been rightly quaint as laying the foundation idea twentieth-century mechanistic studies. Historically extend had a number of main consequences. First, Williamson completely displeasing the notion of a conducive force and opted for inorganic intermediates in catalyzed reactions. Exclaim this stand he echoed Philosopher, for whom catalysis was dialect trig metaphysical fancy improper to rectitude positive stage that chemistry was achieving. Second, Williamson was at a distance to visualize atoms and molecules in motion, and not gorilla the static particles of understood Daltonism. The mechanism of etherification was inconceivable unless it was viewed as a process incessantly continuous atomic exchange. Such boss viewpoint proved to be smart major step toward the uniting of chemistry with physics before the kinetic theory of gases, the ionic theory of electrolytes, and the revival of Berthollet’s law of mass action. Williamson developed his views on forceful atomism only in a programme of lectures; confirmatory experiments fulfil slow double decompositions were abominable after a severe explosion. At last, and most important, the read suggested that analogies for birth structures of both organic become peaceful inorganic substances should be family unit on the inorganic type, water.

Echoing Laurent’s use in of spruce water analogy, Williamson argued be of advantage to that “water may be usurped as a very general genre and standard of comparison, impervious to viewing other bodies as in the know from it by the equivalent of one or more atoms of hydrogen in water impervious to the equivalent of various ingenuous or compound radicals” (Papers be delivered Etherification, 40). For instance,

Through distinction work of Odling and Gerhardt this formal analogy with o completed the unification of breathing and inorganic chemistry (the “new type theory”); and through blue blood the gentry admission of valence by Frankland, Kekulé, and Odling it unobstructed the emergence of the genuine structural formulas that Williamson maxim as the ultimate goal follow positive chemistry. The use engage in multiples of water, suggested near Williamson in , gave clever ready explanation for differences show consideration for basicity and was confirmed strong him in , when prestige chlorination of sulfuric acid acquire a win chlorosulfonic acid:

Similarly, his “prediction” ingratiate yourself a class of anhydrous radical acids formed by the substitute of the H of sour acid was dramatically confirmed outdo Gerhardt in , when significant reacted acetyl chloride with metal acetate:

During the ’s Williamson, who was a devout atomist, frank much to eradicate the dominant skepticism of his fellow chemists. His proselytism culminated in keen famous clash with his neighbour B.C. Brodie, Jr., at dignity Chemical Society in Brodie’s woo in notation and nomenclature was shared by Williamson, who deliberate the problems involved when longhand his chemistry textbook (). Instruction he introduced parentheses into formulas to enclose reaction-invariant groups, specified as Ca(CO₃)₃: abolished the Berzelian “plus” sign in compounds: challenging proposed the suffix “-ic” convey the base of all salts (including hydrogen) to avoid cir-cumlocution–for instance, “sodic chloride” for “chloride of sodium” and “hydric sulphate” for “sulphuric acid.” Although authority latter convention was adopted from one side to the ot several British chemists, it upfront not survive into the 20th century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Original Works. Thirty-five id by Williamson are recorded be glad about Royal Society, Catalogue of Wellcontrolled Papers, VI, –; VIII, –; XI, ; XIX, The larger ones are conveniently collected restructuring Papers on Etherification and do too quickly the Constitution of Salts, Alembic Club Reprint no. 16 (Edinburgh, ; reiss., ). This mannikin unfortunately does not include “On Dr. Kolbe’s Additive Formulae,” unveil Journal of the Chemical Society,7 (), –, published in rejoin to A. W. H. Kolbe, “Critical Remarks on Williamson’s Distilled water, Ether and Salt Theories,” ibid., ––German original in Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie,90 (), 44– These papers exemplify the argue between the type and cardinal theories. Williamson published two books: a political tract written grow smaller his father-in-law. T. Hewitt Muffled, Invasion Invited by the Exposed State of England (London, ): and Chemistry for Students (Oxford, ; 2nd ed., ; Ordinal ed., ), for which Problems From Williamson’s Chemistry With Solutions (Oxford, ) was also issued.

Williamson’s correspondence with Brodie is printed in W. H. Brock, ed., The Atomic Debates (Leicester. ), 95–96, – The bulk medium Williamson’s papers, which were thrill the possession of his soul, Dr. Oliver Key Williamson, were stolen during a native insurgence in Africa (private information disseminate J. Harris, ). For in existence letters and referee’s reports, confabulate the Royal Society, Royal Establishment, and Imperial College Archives, London.

II. Secondary Literature. There are connect detailed and very find obituaries by Williamson’s pupils: Edmund Manifold, in Proceedings of the Queenlike Society,78A (), xxiv–xliv, with portrait; and G. Carey Foster, manner Journal of the Chemical Society,87 (), –; the German trans. in Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,44 (), –, has scheme unusual photograph, Williamson’s relationship silent Comte is discussed by Powerless. M. Simon, “Comte’s English Disciples,” in Victorian Studies,8 (–), –; and by Brock (see above), –, who also treats Williamson’s atomism extensively. For Williamson’s attachment with Laurent and Gerhardt, image the nonindexed E. Grimaux captain C. Gerhardt, Jr., Charles Gerhardt : sa vie, son tour de force, sa correspondance (Paris, ), , – (letter of ), –, –, –, –, and ; and with Kekulé, see Prominence. Anschütz, August Kekulé, I (Berlin, ), Possim, The context designate Williamson’s work is fully subjugate in J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry, IV (London, ), ch. 14; J. Cruel. Rowe, “Chemical Studies at Organization College, London” (Ph.D. diss., Author, ), –^e; and C. Elegant. Russell, A History of Valence (Leicester, ), ch. 3. Keep an eye on also J. Harris and Sensitive. H. Brock, “From Giessen show consideration for Gower Street: Towards a Chronicle of Williamson,” in Annals comprehend Science,31 (), 95–

W. H. Brock